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However, certain diagnostic tests and observations must precede others to avoid interference with results and interpretation. The general order of steps is listed in Box 4.1, but the method will vary according to personal preference, available equipment, and the individual case. The ocular examination should proceed in a logical and systematic manner. They may notice classic signs of ophthalmic pain – watery discharge (increased lacrimation), closed or small eye (blepharospasm), and photophobia, but do not interpret them as such. Owners are often poor judges of ocular pain. Questions should be directed toward vision in different situations: photopic and scotopic conditions, i.e., hemeralopia (day blindness) versus nyctalopia (night blindness) and stationary and moving objects, i.e., central versus peripheral retinal disease. Intensive therapy with topical atropine can induce mydriasis for several days up to 14 days in the horse. Concurrent systemic disease may also affect treatment for example, timolol, a topical β‐blocker, should be avoided in cats with both asthma and glaucoma. The role of concurrent disease or secondary complaints should not be underestimated. Primary complaints from the owner usually include ocular discharge, change in appearance of the eye (size, color, pupil), or reduced vision or blindness. Signalment can provide an important clue to the cause of many ophthalmic conditions these clues include conditions that are specific to a particular species (e.g., corneal sequestrum in the cat), those that are associated with a particular coat color (e.g., multiple ocular anomalies in the homozygous merle dog), those with strong breed predispositions (e.g., keratoconjunctivitis sicca in the West Highland White Terrier), and others known to be hereditary (e.g., cataract in the Morgan horse).

Further information may be required depending on the primary presenting problem. More specific information pertaining to the eye includes the owners’ interpretation of vision, pain, and whether one or both eyes are involved. Additional information that may be helpful includes travel history, vaccination, and deworming history, and whether other animals in the vicinity are similarly affected. In taking a history, the same considerations apply as to other body systems and include signalment, use of the animal, environment, diet, characterization of the primary complaint (onset, initial clinical signs, progression, duration), treatment (response and current treatment), and nonophthalmic disease (previous and concurrent). This chapter describes examination techniques and diagnostic procedures available to veterinarians, and those often employed by veterinary ophthalmologists.Ī thorough history, when combined with clinical findings, will support appropriate case management. Furthermore, the eye lends itself to numerous simple and efficient noninvasive diagnostic procedures, many of which can be performed during a routine examination. Peterson‐JonesĪn ophthalmic diagnosis is often made at the time of the examination, more often than in most systems, because most ocular structures can be visualized either directly or indirectly. Waller and Part 10.4 – Clinical Electrodiagnostic Evaluation of the Visual System, by Gil Ben‐Shiomo and Chapter 11: Ophthalmic Genetics and DNA Testing, by Simon M. Heinrich Part 10.2 – Ocular Imaging, by David Donoldson and Claudia Hartley Part 10.3 – Diagnostic Ophthalmic Ultrasound, by Ellison Bentley, Stefana Pizzirani, and Kenneyh R. Revised from 6th edition of Veterinary Ophthalmology, Chapter 10: Part 10.1 – Ophthalmic Examination and Diagnostics, by Heidi I.